But if the lance and spear were the most common of weapons, they do not appear to have been the most common among the Norman aristocracy. The majority of the infantry were usually armed only with a spear; however, most cavalrymen also carried a sword. An almost religious mystique surrounded this weapon, heightened no doubt by the pseudo-religious significance of the cross shape of the hilt. Veneration of the sword runs through both Saxon and Viking literature and is one of the most enduring legacies of the Dark Ages. The reason is probably that, unlike the lance or spear that was easily broken and usually discarded during battle, the sword was a valuable possession, a trusty defender often handed down from generation to generation. Many times swords were given personal names and sometimes had relics concealed in the pommel and religious inscriptions on the blade to give the owner the protection of the Almighty, His angels, or one of His saints.

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The detailed descriptions of cavalry combat given in the Chanson de Roland show quite clearly that the sword was not used until the spear was broken or lost. Only then would the sword be drawn from its wooden sheath. The favourite sword stroke of the Norman knight was the downward cutting blow delivered to the top of the head. Well aimed, it could cut through both helm, mail coif, and skull. The hero Roland is even described as killing rider and horse with one blow, cleaving through head, trunk, saddle, and horse, and, though obviously exaggerated, it may not be so far from the truth. Certainly literature and illustrations show that the sword was conceived almost entirely as a cutting weapon, the thrusting stroke being used only for administering the coup be grace.

The typical sword of a Norman soldier was a very simple and serviceable weapon with a double-edged, straight blade just over a yard long tapering to a point. A rounded hollow or ‘fuller’ running down the blade to near the point enabled the blade to be made lighter and thus easier to wield without in any way impairing its strength. The hand was protected by a simple metal cross-guard. Although no grips survive they were almost certainly of wood and were probably bound with interlaced thongs of cord or leather. The pommel was usually of domed form although lobate and disc-shaped pommels are found. Though sometimes decorative, the pommel’s real purpose was to act as a counterweight to the blade, thus making the sword easier to wield.

The spear and sword were not the only bladed hand-weapons used by the Normans. The axe, that terrible weapon of the Vikings, was still used by their Norman descendants though it seems to have been more popular among the Saxons. If the Bayeux Tapestry is to be believed it could inflict more dire wounds than any other weapon on the battlefield.

Although spears could be trown when necessary, the main projectile weapon of the Norman army was the bow and arrow, used for long-range fighting and to keep the enemy from engaging in hand-to-hand combat. The Bayeux Tapestry shows Duke William’s archer infantry, their quivers either slung over their shoulders or hung from the waist, playing an important part in the battle. They appear to be shooting bows somewhat shorter than a six-foot longbow, but there is no evidence to prove whether the Norman bow was short or long for none survives. They appear to be drawing their bows not to the ear but to the body only.

The archers were a very important part of Duke William’s army and played perhaps the most decisive part in the battle. Certainly the bow had an enduring place in the Anglo-Norman army. After Hastings the bow seems to have been used almost exclusively as an infantry weapon but the Bayeux Tapestry attests to the fact that it could occasionally be used by mounted troops for pursuit of a fleeing enemy.

Perhaps the most neglected weapon of the Norman period is the crossbow, which was almost certainly known to and used by the Normans well before 1066. Indeed, two of the 11th-century descriptions of the Battle of Hastings state that there were many crossbow men in Duke William’s army in 1066 and this arm formed an important part of the Norman armies that assembled for the First Crusade from 1098 onwards. By the beginning of the 12th century the crossbow was undoubtedly the most important projectile weapon not only of the Norman army but of almost every army in Europe. The crossbow used by the Normans probably had a wooden stock incorporating some form of rudimentary lock and release mechanism of the revolving nut type that was to become so popular later. But however constructed, the Norman crossbow, like the Norman bow, was a formidable weapon quite capable of piercing the mail defences of the best protected warriors.

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