Wars of Alexander the Great: Battle of Issus

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In 333 BC, as Macedonian forces bivouacked at Gordium in Asia Minor, they were led by a confident, aggressive 23 year-old warrior-king who would become known to history as Alexander the Great.

Three years earlier, upon the murder of his father, Philip II of Macedon, Alexander had inherited an army superior to any other the world had yet seen. He had also inherited a mission to cross the Hellespont and liberate those Greeks who for generations had been living under Persian control.

It was not a new idea. Ten years before Alexander was even born, the veteran Athenian pamphleteer Isocrates had published an ‘Address to Philip,’ calling for a Panhellenic crusade against Persia under Philip’s leadership. Even before that, the various Greek city-states had discussed such a crusade, one which would avenge Xerxes’ invasion of a century and a half earlier. The Greeks had forgotten neither the sacrileges committed against the temples of their gods nor the humiliating settlement that had ceded the Hellenic cities of Asia Minor to Persia’s ‘Great King.’

Until the emergence of Philip, however, the idea of a Panhellenic’sacred crusade’ had made little progress among competing Greek states. Athens, for example, while a center of wisdom and culture, had never been able to sustain a dominant role politically or militarily. A great crusade needed a leader like Philip to head it, even though sophisticated Athenians might view him as little more than a crude barbarian.

Philip, however, unable to count on the cooperation, let alone the loyalty, of other Greek states and well aware of Persia’s military superiority, was forced to bide his time. In the next few years he put together a superior, well-drilled army of foot troops and cavalry, one with the mighty Macedonian phalanx as a nucleus. Simultaneously, he was also seeing to the training of his son, giving him the brilliant Aristotle as tutor and assigning him a significant military role while he was still in his teens.

Young Alexander more than fulfilled Philip’s expectations. He was a splendid student and a gifted athlete, and at the age of 18 at the Battle of Chaeronea on September 1, 338 BC, he had fought heroically while commanding Macedonia’s finest cavalry unit. It was an Alexander-led cavalry charge that broke the Thebian line and exposed the Athenian flank and rear, leading to an overwhelming Macedonian victory and the ‘conquering’ of the Greek city-states. Thus it was, upon Philip’s death, that Alexander was able to become both army leader and king–he was seen as one who really deserved those titIes, by ability as well as by birth. Two months later, the Hellenic League met at Corinth and there (with little choice and under a good bit of coercion) named Alexander captain general of the League’s forces for the invasion of Persia. To spur things along, Alexander even introduced a delegate from Ephesus in Asia Minor who claimed to be speaking on behalf of ‘the Greeks of Asia’ and who urged Alexander ‘to undertake a war of liberation’ on their behalf.

Finally, in the early spring of 334, Alexander had set out from Pella at the head of his expeditionary force and marched for the Hellespont. With him were some 43,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. Of these, 12,000 infantry and 1,800 cavalry were Macedonians; the remainder were mostly tribal levies or mercenaries. The Hellenic League begrudgingly provided a number of ships for the expedition, but little else. Of the 43,000 infantry, only 7,000 were contributed by the League; of the 6,000 cavalry, the League provided a mere 600. (Calling the force ‘Panhellenic’ was clearly bowing to a misnomer, but it made for good propaganda.) Thanks to Alexander’s inquiring scientific mind–and presumably the good influence of Aristotle–the expedition also was accompanied by a whole host of botanists, zoologists and surveyors.

After crossing the Dardanelles, Alexander began taking over certain Greek towns. While he called his actions ‘liberation,’ in truth the people were merely exchanging one satrap for another. The shrewd Alexander said they no longer must pay tribute to Persia; however, since they were now members of the Hellenic League, they would be given the ‘opportunity’ of contributing to the support of ‘their’ army!

Now, at Gordium in 333 BC, Alexander could look back on a year of solid triumph. Only once had he faced serious opposition, and that was at the Granicus River, where he had convincingly defeated an army led by Memnon, a Greek general fighting for Persia.

Nevertheless, Alexander had his problems, not the least of which was a shortage of funds with which to pay his mercenaries. And to his rear, a Persian fleet far superior to that of the League was threatening his line of communications. Memnon, meanwhile, who now had a score to settle, had been named commander of all Persian forces in Asia Minor and was menacing not only the towns to Alexander’s rear but even Greece itself. His army had already captured key Greek islands, and on the Greek mainland, Memnon’s agents were handing out bribes and doing whatever they could to stir up trouble. Sparta, it was said, was more than willing to revolt as soon as Memnon gave the word.

The question for Alexander, of course, was whether to retreat to secure his home base or to go forward and take on the entire Persian Empire, a vast conglomerate stretching from the Red Sea to the Caspian, from the Hellespont to beyond the Hindu Kush. He needed an omen, if not for his own sake (he may have already made up his mind), then at least as a positive sign for his superstitious troops.

Fortunately, Gordium provided just such an opportunity. On the acropolis above the city sat the ancient Phrygian palace of King Midas. Nearby was an ox cart with a shaft secured to its yoke by a knot of tough cornet bark. The knot (of a type known to sailors as a ‘Turk’s head’) was closely woven and had no visible loose ends. According to legend, the man who could undo the knot would someday ‘rule all Asia.’

Surely this was a challenge not to be missed. It was out of the question, in fact, to leave Gordium without accepting that challenge. Alexander climbed the hill and approached the cart as a crowd of curious Macedonians and Phrygians gathered around. They watched intently as Alexander struggled with the knot and became frustrated. The atmosphere grew tense–what would it portend if he should fail?

Alexander, stepping back, called out, ‘What does it matter how I loose it?’ With that, he drew his sword, and in one powerful stroke severed the knot. That night there came thunder and lightning, which the seers conveniently interpreted to mean the gods were pleased with the actions of this so-called Son of Zeus who had cut the Gordian knot.

Some historians say Alexander merely drew out the dowel peg that ran through the shaft and yoke, thus releasing the thongs; others say the incident never happened at all. The sword story persists, however, and surely seems true to character. In any case, his course was clear–he would go forward!

By mid-July, Alexander began receiving ominous reports about goings-on in Persia. Evidently his triumphs, and especially his victory at the Granicus River, had at last provoked the full attention of Persian King Darius III. The Great King had moved from Susa to Babylon and begun assembling a mighty horde. Alexander’s army, having ‘lost’ increments of garrison troops dropped off at various points along the way, was down to about 30,000. Darius, calling on the entire Persian Empire, was capable of assembling a force numbering in the hundreds of thousands.

Alexander’s expedition continued south, crossing 75 miles of parched, volcanic upland in a forced march, then passing through a narrow mountain defile known as the Cilician Gates. At the same time, Persian reinforcements were streaming into Babylon. On September 3, Alexander reached Tarsus, where he fell ill with a violent fever. Physicians were summoned, but most were unwilling to treat him, fearing they would be accused either of negligence or murder were he to die. (This was understandable, It was well known that Darius had offered a reward to anyone who managed to slay Alexander.)

As the fever worsened, Philip of Arcarnania, a physician Alexander had known since childhood, was brave enough to step forward and offer treatment. He suggested a certain purgative drug, cautioning that there would be an element of danger. As the dose was being made up, Alexander received a letter from his general Parmenio saying that Philip had been bribed by Darius–the medicine he provided to Alexander would in fact be a deadly poison!

Unhesitatingly, Alexander took the letter to Philip and told him to read it. While Philip was still reading, Alexander surprised him by picking up the medicine and gulping it down. The purge had a violent effect, but three days later the fever was broken and Alexander began to recover. The most relieved man in camp no doubt was Philip, the physician!

By this time pontoon bridges had been constructed over the Euphrates. Darius, with perhaps as many as 500,000 men, began crossing the river and advancing, his army a ponderous juggernaut poised to overwhelm the insolent Greek invaders.

As he convalesced, Alexander sent ahead Parmenio, his senior and ablest general, to capture the little harbor town of Issus and to watch the only two passes (the Amanic Gates northeast of Issus and the Syrian Gates farther South) through which Darius could bring his army into Cilicia. Finally Alexander himself passed through Issus, leaving there his sick and wounded (evidently feeling the town was safe from attack), and continued south, passing through a constricted place known as the Pillars of Jonah.On his right, now, was the Mediterranean Sea; on his left, the rugged Amanus Mountains. As he advanced, scouts arrived with chilling reports-the Persian army, numbering in the hundreds of thousands, was gathering in the vast plain east of the mountains.

Alexander had always taken pride in his ability to anticipate an opponent’s actions. At this point, perhaps acting on false information deliberately ‘leaked’ by the Persians, he decided Darius would make his approach through the Syrian Gates, specifically via the Beilan Pass. He proceeded to pitch camp near the pass and waited. However, this time he was wrong. Days passed, and the attack never materialized.

Alexander had underestimated his opponent. Darius III was a wily, ruthless monarch, who three years earlier had taken over a throne made vacant through an assassination arranged by Bagoas, his scheming grand vizier. Darius showed his gratitude and headed off any further intrigue by promptly forcing Bagoas to drink the poison he had often administered to others. Truly this was a man of many moves, one Alexander could ill afford to underrate.

But he did, and as a result–perhaps for the first time ever Alexander was both outsmarted and outmaneuvered. Darius, taking part of his force, advanced rapidly to the north, swept through the Amanic Gates and positioned himself astride the Greeks’ line of communications in the vicinity of Issus.

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Tags: Ancient-Medieval, Historical Conflicts, Historical Figures

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