HistoryNet mastheadHistoryNetShop Summer Catalog

John C. Calhoun: He Started the Civil War

Civil War Times  | Single Page  | 21 comments  | Print This Post  | Email This Post

Slavery was an essential condition of Calhoun's second major contribution to American political thought — the concept of the concurrent majority. In a nutshell, requiring concurrent majority would safeguard slavery in a political climate that was increasingly anti-slavery and in which the slaveholding South enjoyed too little representation to defend its interest. From Calhoun's viewpoint, the purpose of the concurrent majority concept was to prevent the North, with its population majority, from ruling the nation as a tyrant. 'To govern by the numerical majority alone is to confuse a part of the people with the whole,' he argued.

To turn the concept of concurrent majority into law, the Constitution needed to be formally amended. The amendment Calhoun envisioned would also include a provision for each region to have a chief executive invested with veto power over any congressional action, and the power to execute any federal law in accordance with the interests of his region.

During the 1830s and 1840s, the growth of the Northern abolition movement and attempts by Northern politicians to push the federal government to act against slavery confirmed for Calhoun that the North intended to exercise its power as a majority to the detriment of Southern interests. He responded to these attacks with the argument that the Constitution gave Congress no regula-tory power over slavery. To Northern politicians who dismissed this argument and continued to push antislavery measures through Congress, he warned that the South 'cannot remain here in an endless struggle in defense of our character, our property, and institutions.' He said that if abolitionist agitation did not end, 'we must become, finally, two peoples…. Abolition and the Union cannot co-exist.' Even compromise was not possible, in his opinion.

As the antislavery movement continued to build up steam, Calhoun continually found himself having to defend slavery on moral, ethical, and political grounds. By the 1830s it had already become unsatisfactory for Southern politicians to apologize for slavery and excuse it as a necessary evil; to do so would have been to admit that slavery was morally wrong. So a major shift in the Southern defense of slavery occurred, one that Calhoun had a large role in bringing about.

Calhoun endorsed slavery as 'a good — a great good,' based on his belief in the inequality inherent in the human race. Calhoun believed that people were motivated primarily by self-interest and that competition among them was a positive expression of human nature. The results of this competition were displayed for all to see in the social order: those with the greatest talent and ability rose to the top, and the rest fell into place beneath them.

The concepts of liberty and equality, idealized during the Revolutionary period, were potentially destructive to this social order, Calhoun believed. With the stratification of society, those at the top were recognized as authority figures and respected for their proven wisdom and ability. If the revolutionary ideal of equality were taken too far, the authority of the elite would not be accepted. Without this authority, Calhoun argued, society would break down and the liberty of all men would be threatened. In his manifesto A Disquisition on Government, he asserted that liberty was not a universal right but should be 'reserved for the intelligent, the patriotic, the virtuous and deserving.'

Calhoun believed the liberty Southerners enjoyed depended on slavery. Contrary to the writings of those who unabashedly celebrated the North's free labor system, antebellum Southern society, though definitely stratified, was highly fluid. Fortunes could be and were made in a single generation. Agriculture, specifically cotton, was what made that society so mobile. Cotton was a labor-intensive crop, and as a farmer acquired greater cotton wealth, he required a greater number of field hands to work his expanding fields. So the ownership of slaves became a measure of status and upward mobility. To destroy slavery, according to Calhoun, would be to destroy a powerful symbol of what motivated the Southern man to improve himself.

In the end, Calhoun supported the institution of slavery for many reasons, but at the bottom of all his argument was this: he believed the African race was inferior. He shared the prevailing prejudices of the day — held in both the North and South — that black people were mentally, physically, and morally inferior to whites. This inferiority necessitated that they be slaves. 'There is no instance of any civilized colored race of any shade being found equal to the establishment and maintenance of free government,' Calhoun argued. He pointed to the impoverished living conditions of Northern free blacks as proof that black people lacked the ability to exercise their freedom positively.

In Calhoun's view, slavery benefited black people. 'Never before has the black race…from the dawn of history to the present day, attained a condition so civilized and so improved, not only physically, but morally and intellectually,' he asserted in Congress. 'It came to us in a low, degraded, and savage condition, and in the course of a few generations it has grown up under the fostering care of our institutions.'

Slavery provided black people with a quality of existence Calhoun believed they were incapable of obtaining for themselves. To his mind, despite all the progress the race had supposedly made in America, to free the slaves and place them in situations where they would have to compete with white people on an equal basis would only result in catastrophe. The freed slave's inherent inferiority would place him at such a disadvantage that he would not be able to achieve the quality of life he enjoyed as a slave, Calhoun insisted.

Calhoun noted that slave-owners provided for their slaves from birth to infirmity. He urged critics of slavery to 'look at the sick, and the old and infirm slave, on one hand, in the midst of his family and friends, under the kind superintending care of his master and mistress, and compare it with the forlorn and wretched condition of the pauper in the poor house' in Europe and the North. In support of his argument, he cited census figures indicating that free blacks were much more likely to suffer mental or physical disabilities than were slaves.

In the long run, Calhoun believed, regardless of what happened with slavery, the progress of civilization would in time doom the inferior African race to extinction. Until that time, he asserted, slavery at least gave black people security and made them useful.

When confronted with the argument that slavery was an exploitative labor system, Calhoun replied that in every civilization a propertied class emerged and exploited the labor of the others. This enabled the master class to pursue intellectual and cultural endeavors that advanced the progress of civilization. 'Slavery is indispensable to a republican government,' he proclaimed.

In the South it was inevitable, Calhoun argued, that the African race would be the exploited class. The South merely institutionalized this into a system that benefited both master and servant. The master got his labor and the slave received a standard of living far above what he could achieve on his own.

While Calhoun was defending slavery, he extended his argument to indict the North and industrial capitalism. He asserted that the slave system was actually superior to the 'wage slavery' of the North. He believed that slavery, by intertwining the economic interests of master and slave, eliminated the unavoidable conflict that existed between labor and capital under the wage system. The amount of money a master invested in his slaves made it economically unfeasible to mistreat them or ignore their working and living conditions. In the North, the free laborer was as much a slave to his employer as was the black man in the South, Calhoun argued, but he lacked the protection the black slave enjoyed from a paternalistic master.

With or without Calhoun, the Southern institution of slavery would have disappeared, but it will always remain a black mark on the history of the United States and on Calhoun's reputation. Still, Calhoun deserves a prominent place in the history of American political thought — if only for this irony: while he fought to protect the Southern minority's rights and interests from the Northern majority, he felt free to subordinate the rights of the African American minority to the interests of the South's white majority.

After Calhoun's death on March 31, 1850, one of his greatest foes, U.S. Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, sternly rebuked an associate who suggested that he honor Calhoun with a eulogy in Congress. 'He is not dead, sir — he is not dead,' remarked Benton, a staunch Unionist. 'There may be no vitality in his body, but there is in his doctrines.' A decade later, a bloody civil war would prove Benton was right.


This article was written by Ethan S. Rafuse and originally published in the October 2002 issue of Civil War Times Magazine.

For more great articles, be sure to subscribe to Civil War Times magazine today!

Subscribe Today

Subscribe to Civil War Times magazine

Pages: 1 2 3

Tags: , , , , ,

HistoryNet.com Subject Locator

  1. 21 Comments to “John C. Calhoun: He Started the Civil War”

  2. Abraham Lincoln in his speech in Congress in 1846 said when asked, "Why not let the South go in peace?" Lincoln replied: "I can't let them go. Who would pay for the government?"

    In 1860, the averaged tariff-rate was 18.84%; the Republicans spread the word that they were shooting for 40%–which could bankrupt many Southerners and would make life much harder for most of them.

    The South had to pay twice; first to export their cotton and then to import the goods purchased abroad from the profits made from the cotton sales.

    The Civil War transformed the American regime from a federalist system based on freedom to a centralized state that circumscribed liberty in the name of public order.

    But one issue loomed larger than any other in that year as in the previous three decades: the Northern tariff. It was imposed to benefit Northern industrial interests by subsidizing their production through high prices and public works. But it had the effect of forcing the South to pay more for manufactured goods and disproportionately taxing it to support the central government. It also injured the South's trading relations with other parts of the world.

    In effect, the South was being looted to pay for the North's early version of industrial policy. The battle over the tariff began in 1828, with the "tariff of abomination." Thirty years later, with the South paying 87 percent of federal tariff revenue while having their livelihoods threatened by protectionist legislation, it become impossible for the two regions to be governed under the same regime. The South as a region was being reduced to a slave status, with the federal government as its master.

    By Al Barrs on Jul 5, 2008 at 12:05 pm

  3. John C. Calhoun was not nearly as responsible for the start of the War Between the States as was the radical abolitionist movement in the North. These people financed John Brown's attempt at a slave rebellion and the murder of whites in the South. John C. Calhoun was a right and honorable man.

    By Dave on Nov 29, 2008 at 12:47 am

  4. good job!

    By tiana on Dec 2, 2008 at 10:07 am

  5. THIS IS WRONG!! SORRY HE DID NOT START THE CIVIL WAR BYE!!!!!!!!!

    By MR. Gus on Mar 9, 2009 at 12:23 pm

  6. I think you must be very cofussed or a ratical white hater . Everyone knows slavery was an easy smokescreen for the industrialist to publish as the cause of the war. They needed the souths product and money to accomplish there agenda and to avoid there own failure.

    By rod on Mar 28, 2009 at 11:07 pm

  7. great website

    By no one on Apr 26, 2009 at 12:23 am

  8. Even though John C. Calhoun defended slavery and states rights was his philosophy & ardent belief, he sincerely wished the Union be preserved. Read his final address to the Senate read before them three weeks before his death in March of 1850. This had to do with the admission of California into the Union as a free state. He never wanted the Union to be dissolved and he did not believe the Union should be held together by "force". In reading his papers and examining his thinking through his speeches, it seems like he thought of the Federal government as a sort of caretaker working for the states and that true soverignty resides with the states. I see a parallel in this thinking to Ronald Reagens ideas of too much big government being the problem. For what its worth.

    By Dane Volyn on Jul 6, 2009 at 10:39 am

  9. If someone is to be blamed for "starting" the Civil War, one could argue that it was the founding fathers themselves who are responsible. They allowed slavery to continue since many of the planters would not have even signed the declaration of independence if the authors attempted to abolish slavery in 1776. All men are created equal but slavery was allowed to continue. It was abolished in England just before Queen Victoria ascended the throne but it kept on here wher supposedly all men were created equal. John C. Calhoun did not believe that all men were created equal, neither did Andrew Jackson by the way!

    By Dane Volyn on Jul 15, 2009 at 1:39 pm

  10. Anyone who believes that one race is superior to another is a certified racist. All races originated with adam and eve. If all men were converted to christ's teachings then racial prejudice and hate would not exist. The civil war started because many white americans were racist. They believed that they were intellectually superior to other races. But some white americans believed that the institution of slavery was unchristian and fought a civil war to eventually abolish slavery. The election of President Obama proves that not all white americans are racist. John C. Calhoun was a racist. His thinking was not like Ronald Reagan's. Calhoun was more like Adolph Hitler (i.e. the superior race argument)

    By rufus on Jul 29, 2009 at 5:15 pm

  11. I agree with you Rufus up to a point. Adolph Hitler tried to erradicate a race of people by genocide where Calhoun perpetuated the institution of keeping a race in bondage. There is a world of difference. The tragedy of slavery is apparent, it has taken one hundred fifty years for a man like Obama to come along and give creedence to Martin Luther Kings dream of a man being judged by the content of his character instead of the color of his skin. But racists are still out there. A man like Calhoun was dangerous in that he was such an intellect in his time. Arguably one of the brightest men in government during the 19th century.
    He was impeccable in his personal life, never a scandal and he was beloved by his family and the political base of South Carolina but I always keep in the back of my head about him what Andrew Jackson said in 1837 as he was leaving office, "I have two regrets upon leaving the Presidency, the first is that I have not shot Henry Clay nor hanged John C. Calhoun".

    By Dane Volyn on Aug 12, 2009 at 10:40 am

  12. I must clarify the final comment of my last post by saying Jackson was referring to the nullification crisis relating to the 1832 tariff. That could have been civil war right there if Calhoun had not backed down and acquiest to Jackson when he threatened to send troops to South Carolina to enforce the tariff. Nullification was the precursor to secession but the actual catalyst which caused secession was the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in 1860. The south did not want to give up slavery due to its economic dependence on it, the planters of the south knew no other way and could not or did not wish to come up with an alternative nor would they consider a system in which the slaves could ever be free. Lincoln did not want the Union to dissolve this way and thus by in April 1861 the first shots of the Civil war were fired.

    By Dane Volyn on Aug 12, 2009 at 10:56 am

  13. I find I must correct myself once again. I went back and re-read the 1850 speeches and the commentary on them just to be certain of my facts and discovered that the Hon. Senator John C. Calhoun DID set forth the discourse that secession is a choice open should the North fail to "come to some form of understanding" with South. The Union which once was paramount now took a back seat to the states as regards the slavery question. I was thinking of Calhoun (pre nullification) not post Jackson.

    By Dane Volyn on Aug 18, 2009 at 10:55 am

  14. The South existed on the notion of civil rights for some and not human rights for all. Unless you have both for all, you have no argument that will endure. Those who supported slavery will never be able to rationalize such an inhuman practice.

    By Earl on Sep 11, 2009 at 3:10 pm

  15. The current day Republican Party does not resemble the party of Abraham Lincoln. Today's Republican Party is dominated by white males who are anti-Obama, anti-minorities and, in my view, anti-equality for all. When you hear prominent Republican politicians advocating secession from the union, states rights and
    calling the President of The United States (in a joint session of congress) a liar, then I say the south (the racist spirit that consumed John C. Calhoun – southern politician) has not changed. Richard Steele, the current head of the Republican National Committee (RNC), was voted into that position as a counter to the election of Mr. Obama. His appointment, as the head of the RNC, was a political move designed to counter any charges that racist control the party.
    Since George Bush's departure, the Republican Party has become dominated by closet racist. The spirit of John C. Calhoun is alive and well in the Republican Party. Elements in the Republican Party (mostly southern politicians) are seeking to divide this country along racial and economic lines under the guise of limiting federal authority over the states. They have become the party of "no." Racial slavery has been replaced by economic slavery. They believe that tax breaks for the rich (Landowners/Businesses) will trickle down to the poor (economic slaves). The federal government has no right, in their opinion,
    the interfere with a capitalist system (Supply Side Economics). They scream that Obama is a socialist and a threat to their profit line (the extreme profits from economic slavery). He must be stopped at all cost. Sounds familiar? I agree with Earl concerning his description of the Old South. But I would argue that the Republican Party exist today on the notion of economic rights for some and not basic human rights /equal rights for all. The Republican Party has become the party of John C. Calhoun.
    Elements within the Republican Party are hoping for another american Civil War (Race War). They are hoping that Obama's election (like Lincoln's) will be the catalyst.

    By Rufus on Sep 11, 2009 at 10:52 pm

  16. God I hope you are wrong Rufus but you speak the truth and I agree with what you have written 100%. When that congressman from South Carolina shouted liar, I realized that deep in their hearts nothing has changed. They( Republicans ) will not even attempt to work with Obama in solving the nations problems. The divisions that existed in Calhouns time are just almost as strong today. The people suffer.

    By Dane Volyn on Oct 26, 2009 at 3:21 pm

  17. how did the civl war end

    By quentin pittman on Nov 18, 2009 at 3:16 pm

  18. With much suffering as we know all too well…

    By Dane Volyn on Dec 10, 2009 at 1:24 pm

  19. "The Republican Party has become the party of John C. Calhoun." – Rufus

    That's the single most idiotic comment I've ever seen posted anywhere… (which is saying alot considering what else Rufus wrote).

    By LOL on Dec 31, 2009 at 1:20 am

  20. John C. Calhoun cannot be judged by the laws of the 21st century since his life spanned the years 1782 – 1850. He was not the only man in high office tp perpetuate slavery. Lets run down the list, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, John Tyler and Gen. Zachary Taylor were all Presidents of the US who owned slaves throughout their lifetime. Calhoun was a contemporary who voiced the views of his constituency. The people he represented. He was a good and decent man. As were the aforementioned Presidents. Sen. Calhoun was instrumental in resolving the Oregon question and the annexation of Texas under the time of President Polk.

    By Dane Volyn on Feb 1, 2010 at 11:56 am

  21. I wish some of our present Senators had the good sense to actually represent and voice the needs of the people they say they represent. Calhoun had many good points, so did Webster & Clay. Government officials should take a lesson from all three great men.

    By Dane Volyn on Feb 1, 2010 at 11:59 am

  22. I must have really upset – LOL. I still maintain that the Republican Party is dominated by the views and attitude of John C. Calhoun. I am not judging Calhoun by "21 century law." Mr. Calhoun was a racist. Anyone, regardless of whether they are President of the United States or an ordinary citizen, who support or "perpetuates'" slavery, is a racist. Racism is wrong, regardless of the time period in which it occurs. L0L did not provide any arguments or facts to dispute my statements. His response mirrors those of other conservatives who are exposed as closet racist. L0L should support his emotional comments with facts. I am so happy that the majority of American citizens are decent color blind individuals. President Obama's election indicates that Martin Luther dream is becoming a reality.

    By Rufus on Mar 1, 2010 at 2:01 pm

Post a Comment

Please note that HistoryNet Staff cannot respond to requests for research of any type. Please visit our research forum to post research questions. If you have a question about our magazines, please use the contact us form.

Related Articles



SPONSORED SITES







HistoryNet Article Archives Historynet Spacer

HISTORYNET READERS' POLL

Given cultural differences and expanding populations, could European settlers and America’s native tribes poossibly have co-existed peacefully?

View Results | See previous polls

Loading ... Loading ...
STAY CONNECTED WITH US 
RSS Feed Daily Email Update
HistoryNet on Twitter HistoryNet RSS Feed

What is HistoryNet?

The HistoryNet.com is brought to you by the Weider History Group, the world's largest publisher of history magazines. HistoryNet.com contains daily features, photo galleries and over 5,000 articles originally published in our various magazines.

If you are interested in a specific history subject, try searching our archives, you are bound to find something to pique your interest.

 Get our RSS!
 Newsletter Signup

From Our Magazines

Weider History Group

Weider History Network:  HistoryNet | Armchair General | Great History | Achtung Panzer!
Today in History | Picture of the Day | Daily Quiz | Daily History Question

Copyright © 2010 Weider History Group. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.
Contact Us | Advertise With Us | Subscription Help